Signs of Stress in Cats: 15 Signals You're Missing
- Lucia Fernandes
- Jun 30, 2023
- 20 min read
Updated: Mar 14
Quick Answer
Common signs of stress in cats include hiding, litter box changes, over-grooming, appetite shifts, and increased vocalization. But the signals most owners miss are subtler: displacement grooming in short anxious bursts, a cat who has quietly stopped playing, changes in resting posture, and withdrawal from routines they used to initiate. Cats are biologically wired to suppress visible distress, which means chronic stress often looks like nothing at all until the body gives out. Recognising the early signals is what changes the outcome.
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Litter Box Emergency Protocol: A Diagnostic PDF
When stress shows up in the litter box, this guide helps you identify whether the cause is medical, environmental, or behavioural, so you know where to start.
You know your cat. You live with them. You notice when something feels slightly off, even if
you cannot name it. That quiet voice that says something is not right is worth listening to, because cats are exceptionally good at hiding how they feel. By the time the signs become unmistakable, the stress has usually been building for weeks.
After 15 years working with cats in rescue and as a certified feline behavior specialist, the cases that stay with me are almost never the obvious ones. They are the cats whose guardians noticed something small and acted early, before a behavior problem became a health crisis. This page exists to help you see what they saw. We will go through 15 stress signals, including the subtle ones that most lists never mention, and what each one is actually telling you about how your cat is feeling.
If you are already dealing with a specific problem, the relevant deep-dive guides are linked throughout: litter box problems, anxiety in cats, scratching behaviour, and aggression all connect back to stress as a root cause.
Why Cats Hide Stress So Well
Before the signals, you need to understand why they are so easy to miss. Cats evolved as both predator and prey. In the wild, showing vulnerability invites attack. A cat who looks unwell, frightened, or unstable becomes a target. So the domestic cat, descended from a largely solitary hunter with no social group to protect it, learned to suppress visible distress with remarkable efficiency.
This is not stubbornness or self-sufficiency. It is survival biology. But it creates a real problem for the people who love them: by the time a stressed cat looks stressed, the nervous system has already been under sustained pressure for some time.
Definition
HPA Axis (Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis)
The hormonal stress-response system in cats. When a threat is perceived, the hypothalamus triggers the release of cortisol and adrenaline. Short-term activation is normal and useful. When the HPA axis stays activated chronically, sustained cortisol levels begin to suppress immune function, damage the intestinal lining, and inflame the bladder, which is why long-term stress in cats so often turns into physical illness.
Research
Chronic environmental stress is a primary driver of Feline Idiopathic Cystitis, a painful inflammatory bladder condition with no bacterial cause. Cats living in environments with unpredictable routines, resource competition, or persistent arousal stimuli show significantly higher rates of recurrent FIC episodes.
Buffington, C.A.T. et al. (2006). Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery, 8(4), 261-268.
There are two kinds of stress worth distinguishing before we go into the signals, because they look different and need different responses.
Acute stress is visible and time-limited. It has an identifiable trigger, a visitor, a car journey, a loud noise, and it resolves when that trigger disappears. Most owners recognise it because the cat reacts visibly: hiding, hissing, dilated pupils. Chronic stress is the opposite. It has no single trigger, no obvious moment of onset, and no clear resolution. The cat adapts outwardly while the nervous system stays under sustained pressure. This is the kind most people miss, and the kind most likely to become a health problem.
The signals on this page are largely signals of chronic stress. The table below shows the key differences between the two.
The 15 Signals
1 - Hiding in a new or unusual places (OFTEN MISSED)
Every cat has preferred resting spots. The signal is not that your cat hides, it is that the spots have changed. A cat who now rests behind the washing machine instead of on the sofa, or who retreats to the back of a wardrobe rather than their usual perch, is telling you that their normal environment no longer feels safe.
This is one of the earliest signs of chronic stress and one of the most overlooked, because it is easy to interpret as the cat simply finding a new spot. In reality, cats under stress actively seek two things in a hiding place: elevation and enclosure. If the new hiding spot has both, that is a stronger signal than either alone.
What to Do
Note when the change started and whether anything in the environment shifted around the same time.
Do not block access to the hiding spot. The cat needs to know the escape option exists, even if they rarely use it.
Add a covered bed or box at the cat's current hiding level, making it comfortable without forcing interaction.
If hiding is new and combined with other signals on this list, a vet check is a sensible first step to rule out pain or illness.
2 - Displacement grooming (OFTEN MISSED)
Cats groom to self-soothe. A short, sudden burst of grooming that appears out of context, mid-interaction, after a startling sound, when a second cat enters the room, is called displacement grooming. It is the feline equivalent of a person rubbing the back of their neck when uncomfortable. The grooming itself looks completely normal. The timing is the signal.
In my practice, this is one of the most consistent early indicators of a cat who is chronically managing low-level anxiety. Most owners do not notice it because it looks so ordinary. You have to be watching for it specifically before you see it.
Definition
Displacement Behavior
A behavior that occurs outside its normal context, typically as a response to conflict, uncertainty, or stress. In cats, grooming is the most common displacement behavior. It redirects nervous energy and temporarily lowers arousal, which is why cats reach for it when they are not sure what else to do.
What to Do
Start noting when the grooming happens. Is there a pattern? Visitor arrives? Before feeding? When another cat enters the room?
Identifying the trigger is the first step toward reducing exposure to it, or helping the cat build a different association with it.
Do not interrupt the grooming itself. It is a coping mechanism. Address the trigger, not the response.
3 - Changes in litter box behavior (ACT QUICKLY)
The litter box is one of the most reliable stress monitors you have. A cat who has always used the box reliably and suddenly stops, goes next to it, goes inconsistently, or uses other areas of the house is sending a direct signal. Stress causes physical changes in the urinary and digestive systems that can make the litter box itself feel threatening, painful, or associated with discomfort.
A vet check is essential before assuming this is behavioural. Urinary tract infections, FIC, and kidney disease all produce litter box changes that look identical to stress-related avoidance. Both can be true simultaneously: a medical condition made worse by ongoing stress.
Research
Cats experiencing environmental stress show measurable changes in urinary frequency and bladder inflammation. The relationship between the stress response and bladder lining integrity is well established, with sustained cortisol directly affecting mucosal health.
Westropp, J.L. & Buffington, C.A.T. (2004). Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice, 34(4), 1043-1055.
What to Do
Vet check first, before making any environmental changes. Rule out medical causes completely.
Review the litter box setup: one box per cat plus one extra, in different locations, unscented litter, uncovered where possible.
Full guide: Litter Box Problems in Cats
4 - Reduced or absent play response (OFTEN MISSED)
A cat who has stopped engaging with play is not a lazy cat. Play requires a state of relative emotional safety. The hunting sequence (stalk, chase, pounce, catch) only completes naturally when the cat feels secure enough to lower its vigilance. A chronically stressed cat operates in a low-grade state of alertness that is incompatible with the focused, playful absorption that play requires.
This is easy to miss because it happens gradually. The cat plays a little less, then a little less again, and eventually stops responding. By then, the pattern has been reframed as "just how they are," and the signal has been missed entirely.
What to Do
Try a wand toy at a low-stimulus time (quiet house, consistent time of day) and observe whether the cat tracks the movement even without chasing it.
Any visual tracking or tail movement in response is a positive sign. Start with that and build slowly.
Do not force interaction. Offer the toy and quietly withdraw if there is no response. Consistency over days matters far more than intensity in a single session.
5 - Over-grooming or bald patches (ACT QUICKLY)
When displacement grooming escalates into a compulsive pattern, the cat begins to remove fur. The most common sites are the belly, inner thighs, and the base of the tail. The skin beneath is usually normal in appearance, which distinguishes stress-related over-grooming from allergic or parasitic causes. But a vet check is still necessary, because the two can coexist and the treatment differs significantly.
Definition
Psychogenic Alopecia
Hair loss in cats caused by compulsive over-grooming driven by psychological stress rather than a skin condition or parasite. The cat grooms so intensely and repeatedly that the hair breaks or is pulled out, leaving smooth bald patches. It is a behavioural expression of chronic emotional distress.
Research
A significant proportion of cats presenting with symmetrical hair loss have psychogenic alopecia rather than a dermatological cause. Studies show the conditions look identical on examination, making correct diagnosis dependent on ruling out medical causes systematically.
Waisglass, S.E. et al. (2006). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 228(11), 1705-1709.
What to Do
Vet check to rule out skin conditions, parasites, allergies, and food sensitivities.
Begin a stress diary: note the times and context of grooming sessions and what changed in the environment before it started.
Do not use an Elizabethan collar to prevent grooming without addressing the cause. The compulsion will redirect to another outlet.
6 - Nose-licking outside of mealtimes (OFTEN MISSED)
A quick flick of the tongue over the nose, not after eating, not after drinking, but mid-interaction or during a resting moment, is a subtle and well-documented stress signal in cats. It is related to displacement grooming but briefer and even easier to miss. It often appears when a person is looking directly at the cat, or when a second cat enters the space.
On its own, a single nose-lick means very little. Combined with two or three other signals on this list, it tells you the cat is regularly reaching their threshold.
What to Do
Notice when it happens. Direct eye contact from humans is a common trigger: try a slow blink instead of holding the cat's gaze.
Give the cat a clear exit route during all interactions. Stress signals increase significantly when the cat feels trapped or cornered.
7 - Appetite changes (ACT QUICKLY)
Both reduced appetite and increased eating can be stress responses, though reduced appetite is more common. A cat who was reliably enthusiastic about meals and has become hesitant, slower to approach, or who regularly leaves food is showing a change worth investigating. Stress suppresses appetite by diverting physiological resources to the stress response. But it can also reduce appetite because the cat no longer feels safe enough to eat in the location where food is placed.
In multi-cat households, food location is one of the most common hidden stressors. If a cat can see another cat while eating, or must pass through contested territory to reach their bowl, chronic mealtime anxiety is very likely.
What to Do
Separate food stations in multi-cat households so each cat eats where they cannot see the others.
Any cat who stops eating for more than 24 hours should see a vet. Hepatic lipidosis can develop quickly in cats who fast.
Try wide, shallow dishes: some cats find deep bowls stressful due to whisker sensitivity.
8 - Oncreased vocalization or unusual silence (OFTEN MISSED)
Cats are not naturally vocal with other cats. Meowing developed largely as a communication tool directed at humans. A cat who becomes significantly more vocal, calling out persistently, yowling at night, meowing in a way that feels different from their usual communication, is telling you something is wrong. But the opposite signal is equally important: a normally vocal cat who goes quiet is also showing a change.
In both cases, the key is departure from the individual cat's baseline. What you are looking for is not comparison to an average cat, but a shift from what was normal for this particular animal.
What to Do
Vet check if vocalization increases suddenly, particularly in senior cats where it can indicate pain, cognitive decline, or hyperthyroidism.
Note the timing: does vocalization increase at a specific time of day or in response to a specific event?
Respond calmly without feeding or playing immediately after distressed calling, which can accidentally reinforce the pattern.
9 - Changes in resting posture (OFTEN MISSED)
A genuinely relaxed cat is almost boneless: lying on its back or side, limbs loose, eyes soft and half-closed. A stressed cat rests differently. Weight forward, paws tucked under the body in a loaf position maintained with visible muscle tension, head slightly raised, eyes more open than usual. This posture enables rapid escape. It is not rest. It is surveillance that happens to involve lying down.
The loaf position is often interpreted as contentment, and sometimes it is. The distinction is in the quality of the muscle tone and whether the eyes are soft or watchful. With practice, you will see the difference clearly. The cat who looks relaxed but is also monitoring every movement in the room is not relaxed.
What to Do
Compare how your cat rests now with how they rested six months ago. Has anything shifted?
Add elevated resting spots with clear sightlines to the room's exits. Cats feel significantly more secure when they can observe from height.
Ensure every resting spot has a visual on the room's entry points. Cats do not truly relax with their back to an open door.
10 - Redirected aggression or sudden irritability (ACT QUICKLY)
A cat who hisses, swipes, or bites in response to a touch that was previously tolerated is communicating that their nervous system is overloaded. The stimulus may seem minor. But the cat's threshold has been reduced by accumulated stress, and the response is disproportionate because the underlying system is already activated. This is not a personality change. It is a symptom.
Redirected aggression is particularly common and particularly misunderstood. The cat becomes aroused by an external trigger (a cat visible through a window, a sudden noise) and attacks the nearest available target. The attack feels random and unprovoked. It is neither. Read more in the guide to aggression in cats.
What to Do
Never punish aggression. It increases fear and lowers the threshold for future attacks.
Identify the trigger. If it is a cat outside a window, temporarily block the sightline with window film while working on the underlying stress.
Give the cat at least 30 to 60 minutes to fully de-escalate after any arousal event before attempting interaction.
11 - Increased scratching in new locations (OFTEN MISSED)
Scratching serves two functions: maintaining claw condition and marking territory through both visual marks and scent deposited from the paw pads. When a cat is stressed, territorial marking behaviour increases. You may notice scratching in new areas, particularly near entrances, windows, or spaces that feel contested. This is not destructive behavior. It is the cat attempting to reassert ownership of a space that no longer feels secure.
If you have recently introduced a new pet, moved furniture, had extended visitors, or if a neighborhood cat has begun appearing outside, a sudden increase in scratching near doors and windows is almost certainly a stress-related territorial response. More in the scratching behaviour guide.
What to Do
Place an appropriate scratching surface directly next to the new scratching location. Do not remove the option, redirect it.
Address the trigger: reduce sightlines to rival cats, stabilise the environment, restore routine predictability.
Synthetic pheromone products near territorial scratch sites can be a useful supplementary measure.
12 - Reluctante to move through certain areas (OFTEN MISSED)
Cats in multi-cat households often develop territorial maps of the home, with some areas belonging more to one cat and others to another. A stressed cat will begin avoiding routes through contested zones, sometimes to the point where they stop accessing entire rooms, their water bowl, or their litter box. From the outside, this can look like a preference. It is often active avoidance driven by anxiety about what might be waiting in that part of the home.
Watch whether your cat hesitates before crossing a room, takes an unusual path around furniture, or travels along the wall rather than across open floor. These detours are stress-routing: the cat is navigating around a perceived threat.
What to Do
In multi-cat homes, audit whether all resources (bowls, litter boxes, resting spots) are distributed so no cat must cross another's core territory to access them.
Provide vertical escape routes: cat trees and wall shelves that allow movement above ground level reduce the psychological cost of crossing open space.
13 - Facial tension and changes around the eyes (OFTEN MISSED)
A relaxed cat has soft eyes: gently squinted, warm, the muscles around the orbital area loose and low. A stressed cat has harder eyes: rounder, more open, pupils dilated even in normal light, the muscles around the eye visibly tighter. You can also read the whiskers. Relaxed whiskers fan naturally to the sides. In a stressed cat, they are pulled forward (alert, aroused) or flattened against the face (frightened, defensive).
The slow blink is one of the most reliable individual indicators of felt safety. A cat who used to slow-blink at you and has quietly stopped is telling you something has shifted. Small signals, but precise ones.
What to Do
Practice slow-blinking at your cat: half-close your eyes slowly, hold for a moment, then open again. Many cats will respond in kind when they feel safe enough.
Avoid sustained direct eye contact, which cats read as a challenge. A soft, slightly averted gaze is less threatening than a direct stare.
14 - Digestive changes: vomiting, diarrhoea or constipation (ACT QUICKLY)
The gut and the nervous system are deeply connected in cats, as in all mammals. Chronic stress disrupts digestive motility, alters gut flora, and increases intestinal sensitivity. A cat who vomits more frequently than usual (excluding hairball-related vomiting), has looser stools, or alternates between the two may be showing a physiological response to sustained emotional stress.
This does not mean assuming stress before ruling out dietary causes, parasites, inflammatory bowel disease, or other medical conditions. But when a vet has cleared the cat medically and the digestive symptoms persist or recur without clear cause, the stress angle deserves serious attention.
What to Do
Vet check first. Digestive symptoms always require medical assessment before a behavioural cause is considered.
If medical causes are ruled out, begin a full environmental review: feeding schedule, multi-cat dynamics, routine changes, any new triggers in the home or immediately outside it.
15 - Withdrawal from routines they used to initiate (OFTEN MISSED)
This is the signal that tends to come up when guardians say "he just seems different." The cat used to come to the bedroom at a particular time. Used to wait at the kitchen door before meals. Used to bring a toy in the evening. And somewhere in the last weeks or months, those patterns quietly stopped.
Self-initiated routines are expressions of emotional safety and attachment. A cat who withdraws from them is not growing out of habits or becoming more independent. They are no longer in the emotional state that supports those behaviors. This is one of the subtlest signals on this list, and one of the most significant. When a cat stops reaching toward you, something is consistently costing them the comfort required to do so.
What to Do
Think back: when did the pattern stop? What changed in the home around that time, however small it seemed?
Do not force the old routine. Rebuild it by being consistently present and quiet at the times those behaviours used to occur.
Predictability is the foundation of feline emotional safety. A consistent daily schedule is often the single most powerful intervention available to you.
Is Your Cat Showing Signs of Stress Right Now?
Stress signals rarely appear in isolation. A single sign, a cat who hides more than usual, or one who seems less interested in play, can have a dozen explanations. What matters diagnostically is the combination: when three or more signals are present at the same time, the pattern points consistently toward chronic stress rather than isolated causes.
The checklist below covers all 15 signals from this page. Go through it with your own cat in mind, focusing on changes you have observed in the last two weeks rather than long-standing habits. Three or more signals warrants a closer look at both health and environment. Five or more signals in a cat with no recent changes in routine suggests the stress has been building for some time and a vet check should be the first step.
What to Do If Your Cat Is Showing Signs of Stress
Identifying the signals is the first step. The next is knowing where to start. The order below matters: each step builds on the one before it, and skipping ahead tends to produce slow or incomplete results.
Step 1: Rule out medical causes first
Stress and illness feed each other. A cat in pain will show stress signals. A cat under chronic stress is more vulnerable to physical illness. Before making any environmental changes, a vet check gives you a baseline. Mention every signal you have noticed, including the subtle ones, not just the most obvious change.
Step 2: Keep a behavior diary for one week
Note the time, the signal, what happened immediately before, and who was present. After a week, patterns become visible that are invisible in the moment. This is the single most useful thing you can do before making any changes, because it tells you where the intervention needs to go.
Step 3: Audit the five core resources
Food, water, litter boxes, resting spots, and play: are all five available without competition, conflict, or perceived threat? In multi-cat households, this audit almost always reveals the root cause. Every resource should be accessible without the cat having to cross another cat's core territory to reach it. For a full checklist of what to look for, the litter box problems guide covers resource distribution in detail.
Step 4: Restore predictability
Cats do not tolerate uncertainty well. Consistent feeding times, consistent play sessions at the same time each day, and consistent human behavior are the foundations of felt safety. Environmental enrichment cannot compensate for an unpredictable or unstable environment. Predictability comes first. The how to calm a stressed cat guide covers how to structure this in practice.
Step 5: Add safety before adding enrichment
The instinct when a cat is stressed is to buy things: new toys, a cat tree, pheromone diffusers. All of these can be useful, but none of them work if the cat does not feel safe. Safety comes first: elevated resting spots with clear sightlines, covered hiding areas, uncontested resource access. Then enrichment. The environmental enrichment guide has the specifics.
Step 6: Measure progress against the specific signals you started with
Behavior change in cats is slow. A cat who has been chronically stressed for months will not resolve in a week. Set a realistic timeline of four to six weeks minimum and measure against the signals you noted at the start. Progress is rarely linear, but the overall direction over time is what matters.
Key Takeaways
Cats are biologically wired to suppress visible distress. By the time stress becomes obvious, the nervous system has usually been under pressure for weeks. The earlier the signals are recognised, the better the outcome.
The most commonly missed signals are not dramatic: displacement grooming, changes in resting location, withdrawal from self-initiated routines, and a cat who has quietly stopped playing.
Chronic stress and acute stress require different responses. Acute stress resolves when the trigger disappears. Chronic stress requires sustained environmental support over a minimum of four to six weeks.
Stress and illness are not separate problems. A cat in pain shows stress signals. A cat under chronic stress is more vulnerable to physical illness. Always rule out medical causes before making environmental changes.
The loaf position is not always a sign of contentment. Muscle tension and watchful eyes in a loafing cat indicate surveillance, not rest.
Three or more signals present at the same time points consistently toward chronic stress rather than isolated causes. Five or more signals in a cat with no recent changes in routine warrants a vet check as the first step.
Safety comes before enrichment. No toy, cat tree, or pheromone diffuser will work in a cat who does not feel safe. Elevated resting spots, covered hiding areas, and uncontested resource access are the foundation. Everything else builds on that.
Stress in cats rarely stays contained to behavior alone. One of the first places it shows up physically is the litter box. Changes in frequency, location, and consistency are often the earliest measurable sign that something is wrong, and they are also the ones most likely to be misread as a litter box problem when the root cause is emotional.
If you are already seeing litter box changes alongside the stress signals on this page, The Litter Box Solution gives you the complete diagnostic and resolution system: how to tell whether what you are dealing with is medical, environmental, or stress-driven, and exactly what to do about each one.
Final Thought
The cats I worry about most are not the ones who are visibly distressed. They are the ones who have gone quiet.
A cat who hisses when something frightens them is communicating clearly. A cat who used to greet you at the door and no longer does, who used to sleep on your bed and now sleeps somewhere you never think to look, who used to bring you a toy at the same time every evening and stopped weeks ago without you noticing: that cat has been telling you something for a long time, in the only language available to an animal who evolved to hide how it feels.
Fifteen years of working with cats has taught me that the outcomes that matter most come from people who paid attention early. Not perfectly. Not with a clipboard and a behavior log from day one. Just people who knew their cat well enough to notice when something had quietly shifted, and who took that seriously before the behavior became a crisis or the body gave out.
You already have that instinct. You have it because you live with your cat. What this page gives you is the vocabulary to name what you are seeing, and the confidence to act on it.
That is enough to change the outcome.
Frequently Asked Questions
How do I know if my cat is stressed or just being independent?
The distinction is not about personality type, it is about change. An independent cat who has always preferred distance is not stressed. A cat who used to seek contact, initiate routines, or play regularly and has quietly stopped is showing a change that warrants attention. Stress signals are departures from an individual cat's baseline, not comparisons to an average cat.
Can stress make a cat physically ill?
Yes. Chronic stress activates the HPA axis and keeps it activated, which suppresses immune function, disrupts digestive motility, and increases susceptibility to conditions like feline idiopathic cystitis and upper respiratory infections. Stress and illness also feed each other: a cat in pain will show stress signals, and a stressed cat is more vulnerable to physical illness. This is why a vet check is always the first step.
What is the most commonly missed sign of stress in cats?
Displacement grooming and withdrawal from self-initiated routines are the two signals most consistently missed. Displacement grooming looks completely normal, the timing is the only indicator. Withdrawal from routines happens gradually enough that it gets reframed as the cat simply changing habits. Both tend to be present for weeks before owners connect them to stress.
My cat is hiding more than usual. Is that always a sign of stress?
Not always, but the location matters. A cat who finds a new favourite spot is not necessarily stressed. A cat who moves to a spot that offers both elevation and enclosure, behind appliances, inside wardrobes, under beds against the wall, is actively seeking a location that feels defensible. That combination is a stronger signal than hiding alone. A vet check is warranted if hiding is accompanied by any other signals on this page.
How long does it take for a stressed cat to recover?
It depends on whether the stress is acute or chronic and whether the trigger has been removed. Acute stress resolves relatively quickly once the trigger disappears. Chronic stress, where the nervous system has been under sustained pressure for weeks or months, requires a minimum of four to six weeks of consistent environmental support before meaningful improvement is visible. Progress is rarely linear.
My cat is stressed but I cannot remove the trigger. What do I do?
Focus on what you can control: predictability, resource access, and safety. A cat who cannot escape the trigger entirely can still be supported by consistent routines, guaranteed hiding spaces with elevation and enclosure, uncontested access to food, water, and litter, and daily structured play to discharge cortisol. The how to calm a stressed cat guide covers this in detail.
Should I get pheromone diffusers for a stressed cat?
Pheromone diffusers can be a useful part of the support plan but they are not a starting point. They do not work if the cat has no safe space, no predictable routine, and no uncontested access to resources. Address those foundations first. Once the environment is stable, a diffuser placed in the area where the cat spends most of its time can support the process.
This content is for educational purposes only and does not constitute veterinary advice. If your cat is showing signs of distress, changes in behavior, or any physical symptoms, please consult a qualified veterinarian. Lucia Fernandes is a certified feline behaviour specialist, not a veterinarian.
References
Buffington, C.A.T., Westropp, J.L., Chew, D.J., & Bolus, R.R. (2006). Clinical evaluation of multimodal environmental modification in the management of cats with idiopathic cystitis. Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery, 8(4), 261-268.
Westropp, J.L. & Buffington, C.A.T. (2004). Feline idiopathic cystitis: current understanding of pathophysiology and management. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice, 34(4), 1043-1055.
Waisglass, S.E., Landsberg, G.M., Yager, J.A., & Hall, J.A. (2006). Underlying medical conditions in cats with presumptive psychogenic alopecia. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 228(11), 1705-1709.
Amat, M., Camps, T., & Manteca, X. (2016). Stress in owned cats: behavioural changes and welfare implications. Journal of Feline Medicine and Surgery, 18(8), 577-586.
Stella, J., Croney, C., & Buffington, T. (2013). Effects of stressors on the behavior and physiology of domestic cats. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 143(2-4), 157-163.
Ellis, S.L.H. & Wells, D.L. (2010). The influence of olfactory stimulation on the behaviour of cats housed in a rescue shelter. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 123(1), 56-63.
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